Virtual Reality-Enhanced Neurofeedback: Training Mechanisms, System Components, and Prospects for Cognitive and Neural Rehabilitation

Abstract

The integration of virtual reality (VR) with electroencephalography (EEG)-based neurofeedback represents a significant advancement in cognitive training and neural rehabilitation. This article examines the training mechanisms of neurofeedback across key EEG frequency bands, slow cortical potentials (SCP), theta (4–7 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), sensorimotor rhythm (SMR, 12–15 Hz), and beta (14–30 Hz) detailing their physiological origins, electrode locations, targeted therapeutic effects, and applications in conditions such as epilepsy, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression, and mild cognitive impairment. It is demonstrated how VR overcomes the limitations of conventional neurofeedback environments, monotony, low adherence, and limited adaptability, by providing immersive, interactive, and multi-sensory settings that enhance motivation, brain self-regulation, and neuroplasticity. The typical architecture of VR-supported neurofeedback systems is described, including EEG acquisition and processing, VR control module, and real-time feedback delivery. Reviewed evidence indicates that VR augments specific cortical activation, accelerates neuroplastic changes, and improves outcomes in psychological and neurological rehabilitation, while enabling application in clinical, educational, and home-based contexts. Nevertheless, technical challenges persist, including hardware latency, algorithmic precision, and cybersickness. In conclusion, the VR–neurofeedback synergy constitutes a promising evolution in brain–computer interface applications, offering greater efficacy, accessibility, and personalization. Longitudinal studies and technical refinements are required to fully realize its therapeutic potential.