Teacher training, empowerment, and child resilience: a systematic review

Introduction

Domestic and school violence are recognized as some of the most critical social problems in Latin America and the world, given that they directly affect the emotional, cognitive, and social development processes of children. The school, conceived as a space for socialization and protection, acquires a fundamental role in the early detection and attention of these situations. In this context, teachers become key actors in generating safe, resilient, and child- empowering environments (UNESCO, 2022). Despite this, multiple investigations such as those by Dopico & Menéndez, (2024), Galindo & Ballén, (2023), Ramírez-Solórzano, (2023), and Mayo, (2022) have revealed that teachers often lack sufficient training to face this complex reality, which raises the need to strengthen their professional skills at different levels.

In today's context, teaching competencies (pedagogical, psychosocial, and legal) are considered essential for providing comprehensive care to children who are victims of violence. Pedagogical competencies allow teachers to adapt their teaching practices to students in vulnerable situations. Psychosocial competencies facilitate socioemotional support, empathy, and conflict resolution (Galindo & Ballen, 2023; Onofre-Siñani, 2025). Legal competencies involve knowledge of institutional regulations and protocols for the protection of children's rights (López, 2017). The absence of these competencies directly impacts teachers' ability to detect, intervene, and appropriately refer cases of violence, which impacts the quality of education and the overall well-being of students.

The research background around this topic shows relevant advances. Authors such as Amar (2003) analyze psychosocial factors associated with resilience in children victims of domestic violence, highlighting the importance of the teacher's role in the development of self-esteem and self-regulation. Furthermore, Díaz, Martínez & Vásquez (2011) proposed an educational model based on resilience to prevent and intervene in school violence, recognizing the teacher as a protective agent. It is also considered relevant to relate more recent research such as that of Castillo, Cordero & Merellano (2025), who studied the deficiencies in initial teacher training regarding the confrontation of school violence in Chile, highlighting the urgent need to train teachers in specific skills for managing these contexts (Ramírez-Solórzano, 2025). These contributions support the relevance of systematizing scientific knowledge on teacher competencies in this area.

The theoretical framework is articulated with the doctoral thesis related to this same subject and this review is based on the contributions of critical pedagogy and resilient education, which consider the teacher not only as a transmitter of content, but also as a mediator of empowerment and resilience processes in students (Nina, 2023; Villalobos, Barría-Herrera, & Pasmanik, 2022; Tenorio-Vilchez, 2021; Grotberg, 2006; Van Manen, 2008). From this perspective, teaching practice is understood as an ethical, pedagogical, and social action that responds to the challenge of training individuals capable of overcoming adverse contexts and actively exercising their rights.

Considering the above, the objective of this article is to conduct a documentary review to determine the pedagogical, psychosocial, and legal competencies required by teachers to promote empowerment and resilience in children who are victims of domestic and school violence, all through a systematic bibliographic search. The relevance of this research lies in its ability to integrate and analyze recent scientific evidence (2015–2025), generating inputs that can be used to develop teacher training programs that respond to the current demands of educational systems in vulnerable contexts.

Materials and methods

To fulfill the purpose of this analysis, a systematic review was used, since the central objective was to analyze and interpret the available scientific literature on pedagogical, psychosocial, and legal teaching competencies in contexts of domestic and school violence from a perspective of child empowerment and resilience; since it was based on the analysis of secondary sources (Fernández, Sampieri, & Baptista, 2018), consequently, the systematic bibliographic search design was used, understood as a planned, explicit and replicable procedure that allows locating, selecting, evaluating and synthesizing the most relevant academic production around a specific topic under the parameters of Codina, (2018) and Petticrew & Roberts, (2006), all seeking to ensure methodological rigor (Grant & Booth, 2009).

The final study population consisted of academic literature (20 studies) published between 2015 and 2025, in order to involve analysis of recent studies that would allow generating an approach to data articulated with the current educational context. The documentary sample was delimited based on previously established inclusion and exclusion criteria, with inclusion criteria being the filtering of peer-reviewed empirical and theoretical articles, books and academic chapters that explicitly addressed teaching competencies (pedagogical, psychosocial or legal) and their relationship to care for children victims of domestic or school violence, resilience or empowerment; while the exclusion criteria were gray literature, non-refereed documents, texts without full access or that addressed teaching competencies in contexts other than violence and resilience.

The search was conducted in databases and repositories such as Scielo, Redalyc, Dialnet, Latindex, and Google Scholar, using Boolean combinations in Spanish with descriptors such as "teaching competencies," "domestic violence," "school violence," "child resilience," and "child empowerment." The technique used involved an information-recording tool consisting of a structured bibliographic record containing uniform data such as the full reference, document type, objective, context or population, teaching competencies addressed, contributions related to resilience and empowerment, and main findings.

The procedure involved three phases: identification and screening of documents in the selected databases; evaluation of the relevance and quality of the selected texts, prioritizing publications in indexed journals; and a triangulated analysis of the findings, which allowed for organizing the competencies according to their dimension (pedagogical, psychosocial, or legal), reflecting on them holistically, and identifying trends or gaps in the literature. Regarding ethical considerations, as this was a documentary study, neither informed consent nor ethics committee approval was required, as it did not involve interaction with human subjects or the collection of sensitive data. However, respect for the authors' intellectual property was guaranteed through citation.

To ensure the validity and reliability of this review, explicit criteria were established for assessing the methodological quality of the selected studies. A scoring matrix was also applied that considered aspects such as the coherence between the objectives and the methodology used, the solidity and timeliness of the theoretical framework, the relevance of the methodological design, the clarity of the presentation and analysis of results, and the justification of the conclusions in relation to the reported evidence. Only those studies that achieved a minimum score of 70% in this evaluation were included in the final sample, thereby ensuring the scientific consistency and academic relevance of the analyzed sources (see Table 1).

The matrix demonstrates a structured search process that began with 208 initial records and was refined to a final sample of 20 relevant studies. The selection was narrowed down by applying previously defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, prioritizing peer-reviewed, fully accessible publications. This procedure ensured that the selected documents were representative, recent, and directly linked to the pedagogical, psychosocial, and legal competencies of teachers in contexts of violence and child resilience, strengthening the validity of the study's results and conclusions.

Results

The results obtained show that many teachers do not feel adequately prepared in these areas. Below, the necessary competencies in each area are detailed, based on scientific literature and institutional guidelines, using the defined inclusion criteria (recent, relevant and quality sources).

Pedagogical competencies: inclusive teaching and violence prevention

Pedagogical competencies refer to the knowledge and teaching skills that enable teachers to create safe, inclusive, and enriching learning environments for all students. In the context of child victims of abuse, teachers must be able to adjust their teaching practices to foster trust, respect, and active participation among these students in the classroom. However, multiple studies, such as those by Díaz et al. (2018) and Fernández (2022), reveal significant gaps in teacher training in this regard. For example, more than 93% of teachers in a sample in Cartagena, Colombia, had not received specific training on child abuse, and only 10% had reported suspected cases to the authorities (Díaz et al., 2018). In the case of Spain, only 2 out of 10 practicing teachers felt prepared to handle cases of bullying, and 76% admit that this problem exceeds their training (Fernández, 2022).

These training deficiencies can reduce the detection and timely intervention of violence, negatively impacting school climate and student learning. To empower and protect child victims, teachers need to strengthen the following key pedagogical competencies:

Detection and educational attention to signs of abuse: Knowing how to recognize the signs of possible abuse or trauma in students' behavior and performance, and intervening pedagogically in a sensitive way (such as adapting academic demands and providing additional support) (Ropero, 2017). Creating spaces in the classroom where students feel safe to express themselves can help reveal hidden situations of violence. Other studies such as Priegue & Cambeiro (2016) or Vila, Greco, Loinaz & Pereda (2019) indicate that many teachers do not identify subtle forms of mistreatment (such as emotional abuse or neglect) due to a lack of training, which limits their ability to react. Therefore, adequate training in this area is urgent, since early detection in schools is a crucial measure for prevention and child protection (Ropero, 2017).

Designing inclusive and resilient learning environments: Develop teaching strategies that promote a positive, equitable, and participatory classroom environment, where all children (especially those who have experienced violence) feel valued, heard, and supported. This includes the use of participatory methodologies, social-emotional learning, and formative rather than punitive discipline.

A welcoming school environment should help restore children's sense of belonging, self-esteem, and trust in adults, which are essential factors for resilience. Evidence shows that in protective contexts and positive school climates, traumatized students can begin to overcome adversity and improve their academic performance (Alvarado, Contador, & Gallardo, 2002). Therefore, teachers must know how to manage the classroom with empathy, handle conflicts constructively, and encourage cooperation and good treatment among peers (Ropero, 2017). Some international guidelines recommend integrating violence prevention into routine school activities and the curriculum, promoting life skills in students (such as peaceful conflict resolution and identifying emotions) (World Health Organization, 2019).

Pedagogical adaptation and attention to diversity: Be able to differentiate instruction to address special needs arising from trauma. Children who are victims of violence often experience difficulty concentrating, anxiety, or disruptive behavior in class. A competent teacher must know how to adjust time, content, and assessments, offering comprehensive feedback and realistic expectations based on the child's circumstances (avoiding exacerbating their stress). Likewise, support should be provided by guidance or special education teams when necessary, without stigmatizing the student. The literature indicates that trauma-sensitive pedagogical interventions (such as flexible pacing, positive reinforcement, and safe routines) help students develop resilience and continue learning despite difficulties (Alvarado et al., 2022). In general terms, pedagogical competencies involve mastering teaching techniques that transform the school into a protective and empowering space. Some WHO and UNESCO documents emphasize the importance of ongoing teacher training in school coexistence, classroom management, and violence prevention (World Health Organization, 2019).

However, unfortunately, a lack of pedagogical preparation in these areas has been a recognized impediment. For example, only 11% of child abuse cases were reported to schools in some studies, reflecting teacher uncertainty about how to respond. Fortunately, recent training programs (such as school anti-bullying protocols and child abuse prevention guidelines) are beginning to fill this gap in several countries (SEP, 2017). Strengthening these pedagogical skills in all teachers is essential for schools to break the cycle of violence and become agents of resilience and positive change in the lives of abused children.

Psychosocial skills: emotional support, empathy and collaborative work

Psychosocial competencies encompass teachers' skills in understanding and managing the emotional, relational, and social factors that influence their students' well-being. In the specific case of children who are victims of violence, teachers must assume the role of a significant adult, providing emotional support, trust, and guidance, thus contributing to the child's emotional recovery. In recent research, Collie (2025) defines the teacher's socio-emotional competence (perceived social – emotional competence) as the belief that he or she can act effectively in social and emotional interactions with students, which allows him or her to respond sensitively to their individual needs. On the other hand, authors such as Parrott et al. (2025) found that after natural disasters, teachers conceptualize their role as agents that provide psycho-educational and practical support, constituting themselves as stable figures that promote educational continuity and the emotional well-being of students. These teacher competencies (empathic relationship, emotional support, and emotional commitment) function as protective factors that strengthen children's resilience in adverse situations; therefore, teachers must develop the following key psychosocial competencies:

Empathy and assertive communication: Knowing how to put oneself in the child's shoes, actively listening to them and validating their feelings, showing understanding and closeness (without judgment), so that teacher empathy makes it easier for the student to feel valued and less alone with their emotional burden; however, some research indicates that many educators have moderate levels of empathy, insufficient to detect subtle signs of abuse or establish strong bonds of trust, therefore it is essential for the teacher to learn assertive communication techniques (for example, expressing to the child's availability to help them, assuring them of relative confidentiality and conveying that they are not guilty of the violence suffered), since this can encourage them to reveal risky situations or cooperate in intervention processes (Ropero, 2017), such that empathetic treatment by the teacher has been associated with improvements in self-esteem and behavior of victimized students, as well as with less anxiety and emotional problems in them. The emotional education of teachers (including self-control and stress management) is also important, since burned-out teachers or those with low emotional intelligence may respond inappropriately to traumatized children (Sánchez, 2020), (Rahal, 2021).

Detection and channeling of socio-emotional needs: It involves the ability to identify when a student requires specialized help (psychological, medical, etc.) and knowing how to respond accordingly. Teachers spend many hours with their students and may notice mood swings, withdrawal, aggression, or regression that indicate unresolved trauma. It is emphasized that an essential skill is to recognize these indicators (persistent sadness, disturbing games or drawings, unusual hyperactivity, drowsiness, among others) and not ignore them. Instead, they should approach the child tactfully to investigate if something is happening and inform the school counselor or psychosocial team when appropriate. Unfortunately, many teachers admit they do not know how to react to suspected abuse or how to proceed with internal protocols, which leads to inaction due to fear of making a mistake. Training in this area (for example, through workshops on psychological first aid, family dynamics, and childhood trauma) increases the teacher's confidence to intervene appropriately and refer cases to external professionals (psychologists, social workers) when necessary. A teacher with psychosocial skills also understands the importance of working in a network with the family and protective services: he or she maintains continuous communication with the child's caregivers (safeguarding confidentiality), collaborates with school psychologists, and actively participates in the care plans designed for that student (García & Restrepo, 2023).

Promoting resilience and a supportive climate: Beyond addressing problems, teachers should foster the strengths of children in vulnerable situations, which involves helping them develop social skills, stress-coping techniques, and a positive self-image. For example, a trained teacher can implement school resilience programs, such as conflict resolution activities, discussion circles, peer tutoring, or cooperative projects, which help students gain a sense of self-efficacy and connection with others. Recent studies show that interventions based on building supportive relationships (teacher mentoring, student support groups) and teaching social-emotional skills can significantly mitigate the effects of trauma on children's performance and behavior. In Chile, for example, more than 69% of teachers identified empathy and 55% identified adaptability as essential competencies for promoting resilient classroom environments. A resilient teacher leads by example, handling adversity with a constructive attitude, showing students that obstacles can be overcome (Herrera et al., 2020). Co-responsibility is another key psychosocial value: teachers must recognize that they are part of a joint effort with families, the community, and other institutions to protect children. In this regard, authors such as García & Restrepo (2023) emphasize that comprehensive protection requires the coordinated participation of all stakeholders (educators, parents, the state, and civil society), and that teachers act as articulating leaders who continually support children while also activating the support of other care systems.

According to the above, psychosocial competencies empower teachers to become reliable support and guidance figures for children who have experienced violence in their homes or educational settings. Teachers with these skills ensure that school is not only a place for academic learning, but also a space for emotional support and rebuilding trust. Global studies indicate that when students perceive their teachers as empathetic and approachable, they report lower levels of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress (Ampofo, et al, 2025). Therefore, investing in the socio-emotional training of teachers (for example, through childhood trauma awareness courses, basic counseling techniques, professional self-care, and working with families) is considered essential. This will allow them to develop sensitivity, patience, and the appropriate capacity to react to empower vulnerable children, helping them verbalize their experiences, validating their abilities, and celebrating their achievements, however small. The teacher gradually gives them back a sense of control over their lives and the motivation to move forward. According to UNESCO, teachers play a key role in building protective educational spaces; however, a large proportion lack the necessary training to identify, prevent, and address situations of violence, so it is essential to provide them with support in strengthening these skills (UNESCO, 2021).

Legal and procedural skills: regulatory knowledge and protective action

Legal competencies refer to mastery of the regulatory framework, child protection policies, and institutional procedures that teachers must know and apply in cases of violence. These include understanding the legal obligations of the teaching profession regarding child protection (such as the responsibility to report abuse), as well as properly handling school and community protocols designed to address these cases. Procedural competencies are linked to the ability to execute the established steps when a suspicion or report of abuse is presented (from gathering relevant information to notifying the competent authorities and following up on any protective measures taken). Acquiring these skills is essential for teachers to stop feeling helpless or helpless in the face of violence and become truly active agents who guarantee children's rights. Some key elements of legal/procedural skills are:

Knowledge of child protection laws and teacher duties: Teachers should be familiar with current regulations that protect minors. For example, many countries have laws and codes (such as the Code of Childhood and Adolescence in Latin America, or specific laws against child abuse) that require those who work with children to report any suspicion of abuse. A competent teacher knows that they are legally obligated to respond to signs of abuse (that is, they know their duty is not to ignore the situations) and knows who to report them to and how. In countries like Spain, Organic Law 1/1996 imposes on everyone the duty to report situations of child risk or neglect, which obviously includes teachers (Article 13). In Colombia, Law 1620 of 2013 and its regulations require educational institutions to establish school coexistence committees and establish clear routes for addressing cases of violence, with teacher participation. If teachers are unaware of these provisions, they could, by omission, prolong the child's suffering (by not activating protection) or even incur disciplinary liability. It is highlighted that some studies such as those by López (2017) and Castillo, Cordero & Merellano (2025) indicate that the lack of knowledge of legal procedures and the fear of getting involved have limited the timely interventions of many teachers, a situation that highlights the need for teachers to be instructed in basic legal issues such as children's rights, types of abuse typified, entities of the protection system and reporting protocols in their initial and continuing training. In fact, when educational staff are trained in protection regulations, the rate of substantiated reporting from schools increases significantly.

Management of institutional protocols and care routes: Each educational setting typically has guidelines or protocols that guide teachers' actions when abuse is suspected or reported (for example, completing a report form, informing the principal or counselor, contacting social services, etc.). It is absolutely essential for teachers to master these approaches. An example that can be presented as a model is the protocol established by the Ministry of Public Education in Mexico (2017), which clearly indicates the steps to follow in cases of sexual abuse, bullying or mistreatment in primary schools. This document guides teachers on how to detect warning signs, how to document them, which authorities to refer them to (school authorities, protection attorneys, reporting lines) and how to follow up within the school (accompaniment of the student, meetings with parents, etc.).

Guarantee of rights and confidentiality: Another legal-procedural competency is knowing how to protect the child's privacy and dignity throughout the process. Therefore, teachers must handle information discreetly, which means sharing it only with those appropriate and avoiding exposing the child to stigmatization at school. It also entails respecting due process. For example, teachers should not openly accuse a parent of abuse without proof, but rather channel the situation to the competent authorities for investigation (otherwise, it could violate the rights of all parties). Similarly, teachers must understand the limits of their professional practice, as they should not exhaustively question the child about the abuse (an expert would have to do that) or take justice into their own hands, but rather act as a bridge to the formal protection system. In this sense, Rivilla (2013) points out that legal competencies include the ability to recognize when and how to intervene in circumstances that violate rights, cooperating effectively with other agents in the protection system.

In practice, strengthening teachers' legal and procedural skills translates into greater security and speed when addressing cases of violence. An example of this is seen in a documented case in Peru, where after training school staff in a certain municipality on intersectoral response routes, effective reports from schools increased, and response time to activate support for children decreased (Save the Children, 2020). Similarly, the ICBF (Colombia) has published technical guidelines recommending that each educational institution have a well-defined comprehensive response route (from the moment of detection to the restoration of rights) and that all teachers be familiar with it and implement it in coordination with local authorities. It is worth highlighting that most of the guidelines emphasize intersectoral coordination, meaning that teachers are not alone but rather are part of a network with social workers, psychologists, child protection police, the judiciary, etc., to achieve effective protection. Therefore, a final competency to mention is network management, which implies that the teacher must know how to communicate and collaborate with other entities.

Discussion

The findings of this systematic review show significant gaps in teacher training to comprehensively care for child victims of violence. Among these gaps is the lack of specific training in child abuse and very few are prepared to handle cases of bullying, a structural problem that transcends geographical contexts.

The results also reveal that pedagogical, psychosocial, and legal competencies function as an articulated system rather than as isolated dimensions. The former allow for the creation of appropriate, safe, and supportive environments, but their effectiveness will depend specifically on the social skills required to identify emotional needs and the knowledge required by regulations to activate appropriate protection protocols for addressing these cases. Similarly, the latter seek to contribute to establishing bonds of trust, which are insufficient if the teacher lacks pedagogical strategies to channel cases requiring action in these contexts. Finally, legal competencies contribute to identifying situations that may even require reporting and activating institutional protocols, situations that can be jeopardized if the student lacks the sensitivity to approach them without falling into re-victimization.

This three-dimensional interdependence explains why fragmented interventions demonstrate limited results and underscores the need for comprehensive educational approaches. This is consistent with Alvarado et al. (2022) and Ropero (2017), who state that a positive school climate contributes to mitigating the effects of student problems, but requires teachers with pedagogical sensitivity, emotional empathy, and clarity in institutional procedures. If any of these elements are missing, the ability to protect children at school may be compromised.

Likewise, it is possible to demonstrate that there is evidence of the existing gap between regulatory frameworks and their effective implementation in educational institutions. As documented by López (2017) and Castillo et al. (2025), the lack of knowledge of legal procedures and the fear of getting involved in problems generate internal conflicts that delay the protection of students. In this sense, it is demonstrated that teacher training requires that teacher training be essential, sufficient (although it may never be), coherent (Barbeito, 2021), and permanent, to overcome existing contradictions and improve competencies as a strategic priority. The latter recognizes the need to transform teacher training programs, incorporating mandatory subjects into the curriculum that contribute to the detection of violence, knowledge of regulations, and the application of appropriate pedagogy for these contexts.

Finally, it can be said that strengthening the competencies mentioned in this article is a fundamental, though insufficient, condition for primary and secondary education institutions to fulfill their role in educating and protecting children. The results confirm that a teacher competent in these areas responds to difficulties more proactively and effectively. However, the role played by institutional support, contextualized policies, and an institutional culture that values the protection of infants, children, and youth as one of its academic achievements cannot be ignored. The transformation of teacher training must be assumed as a categorical imperative and a decisive investment by the State.

Conclusions

Legal and procedural competencies empower teachers to act as guarantors of their students' rights. A teacher trained in this area does not hesitate to activate the protection route or fulfill their legal duty, becoming a key agent in curbing violence. Thus, the school, along with the family, is the primary agent of child socialization. Hence the importance of teacher training in the detection, prevention, and intervention of child abuse in their classrooms.

Fulfilling this responsibility is not easy and requires support, which involves educational authorities, who must provide periodic legal training, professional advice in difficult cases, and clear institutional support so that teachers can act without fear of retaliation. When teachers master these elements—that is, they know what to do, how to do it correctly, and have the support they need—school responses to bullying become effective and proactive. In this way, schools not only educate, but also protect by restoring violated rights and promoting environments where no child should have to live in fear. This would ultimately be the foundation for empowerment and resilience, basically ensuring that children grow up safe, heard, and protected by a network of care, of which well-trained teachers are a fundamental part.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest in relation to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.